邊琪
說到帝國主義，人們立刻會想到壟斷的、寄生的、腐朽的、垂死的資本主義，聯想到由此產生的經濟、政治與軍事上的殖民現象；而不會想到它同樣可以是一種思維習慣，是西方發達國家的主導觀念、意識形態、價值觀念在文化、知識和現代技術領域裏的廣泛表現。
文化的趨同（同質化）現象是近年來爭論很激烈的一個話題。有人認為文化同質化是文化發展的必然趨勢。經濟日趨一體化，INTERNET的迅速發展，使地球宛如一個村落；西方模式和價值觀的到處傳播，尤其是冷戰後美國文化對我國的大量滲入，文化的同質化現象日趨明顯。從80年代末以美國為首的西方對發展中國家的文化傳播力度加大，甚至出現文化帝國主義現象，即指發達國家（尤其美國）確實在有意或無意地控制發展中國家的媒介系統和文化生活，也就是說在文化傳播中，發達國家和發展中國家的地位是不平等的。從消費文化的輸入和滲透，逐步實現了物質文化的趨同，並且政治文化和心理文化的趨同在不同程度和不同範圍內也在加緊進行。80年代以來，愈來愈多的貼著美國商標的商品、電影大片、各類碟片、鄉村音樂、搖滾樂、唐老鴨、米老鼠、變形金剛等一系列無不反映大國的文化和價值觀的東西衝擊著發展中國家市場，即使意識形態相對淡薄的純粹娛樂性節目，也因有意無意間展示、宣導了西方社會的生活方式，而對發展中國家的人們尤其是年輕人產生了重大影響。西方在高科技、工業創新的優勢下，創制出大量高品質、精美的商品，而且以物質文化的形式侵略至其他國家。20年來，我們既引進了西方先進的生產技術設備，同時也引進了大批的文化產品。以可口可樂、麥當勞等具有象徵意義的美國文化一方面改變了我們的生活方式，也改變了我們的生活觀念；而另一方面，它們極大地衝擊了我國的文化行業。
面對西方文化的劇烈衝擊，我們中國學者並沒有及時地對文化領域中的諸多的現象進行系統的學術研究和對策性研究，而西方發達國家的學術界不僅關注這一現象，而且他們對西方發達資本主義國家對發展中國家的強勁的文化衝擊波，進行了認真地觀察和研究，其中以英國諾丁漢特倫特大學的約翰湯林森博士的研究為代表，他的《文化帝國主義》是對"文化帝國主義的現象及理論意義進行學術疏理和評判性介紹的一部專著。湯林森在該書中主要運用解釋學的理論和方法把文化當作一個文本，對文本進行解讀，並把這一過程視為解讀者和文本之間的交互過程。在湯林森看來，所謂的文化帝國主義指的是：“他們”的文化和生活威脅著“我們”的生活方式，但是，“如果只是完全以‘共時性--空間’的模式構思文化帝國主義的話語，但卻忽略這些文化過程的本質，那麼將在概念上出現很多問題”。湯林森在《文化帝國主義》一書中的一個重要的論據是民族國家都有文化認同的問題。一部民族文化史就是一部民族發展史，反之每個國家的發展史也是這個國家的文化史。因為，從哲學的角度來看，文化是人類行為的總和。每個國家的國情不同，基礎不同，發展必然不同，文化內涵也自然不同。一味推崇文化同質化，首先是抹殺了國家民族性，這必然會導致國家的衰落和殖民化。同質化現象是和西方推行的全球一體化相聯繫的。國家是歷史的產物，過去發生的一切使它成為今天這個樣子，不同的國家以不同的方式管理著自己。每個社會的文化都是在特殊的環境中經過長期發展積累起來的，必然有著不同的社會文化經驗。從人類世界的理想來說，人們希望出現一個沒有國界的社會，在這個社會裏，沒有不同地區、不同民族、不同語言、不同宗教之間的差異。但是，各個民族不同文化是經過了千百年的演變才發展起來的，不可能在一夜之間將這種差異消除掉，更不可能把自己的文化當成世界文化強行在世界推行，這樣做，只會激發新的文明的衝突。如果一個社會長期只是照搬別國的文化經驗，這種依賴性，會導致輸入文化的國家的文化失去自我調節的自主能力，形成文化殖民化，以至導致全面殖民化的惡果。
不可否認，現在西方發達國家依靠科學技術和經濟發展水準，借助傳媒和商品大量傳播其文化價值觀，顯示出它的文化優勢。因此，本書的另一個重要的內容就是大國的文化霸權對他國民族文化傳統的威脅。這和一個國家的科技發展、工業現代化引出的文化現代化問題有關。現代化的內涵很豐富，至少應包含兩方面的內容：科學技術和經濟的現代化：政治與文化的現代化，包括人的現代化。因此，不能說有現代科學技術就有現代文化。一個民族，不可能工業現代化後，文化就現代化了。文化現代化的實現說到底是在傳統文化中，逐漸融進去最為先進的異質文化中的優質文化部分，使本土文化逐步完善，符合現代生活的發展。那麼，文化現代化對於一個民族來講究竟意味著什麼？難道光接受西方發達國家的文化就是現代化了嗎？顯然沒有那麼簡單。從當前美國文化對我國的大量滲透引發的一系列社會問題來看，文化要實現現代化，就需要加強文化的民族化和本土化研究。在工業發展的時候，在物質文明極大豐富的時候，民族文化和物質文化的發展怎樣能夠比較協調？民族的特徵和民族方式影響著物質文化的發展，成熟的文化應具有適應環境、改進環境的作用。資訊化、地球村的今天，世界走向同一的趨勢超過以往任何時代，文化共用已是必然，我國的發展離不開吸收西方的異質文化，異質文化的融合常會產生強大的新的生命力，而單性文化的封閉式發展，則會導致這種文化的萎縮乃至衰微。但西方發達國家利用技術的先進對發展中國家的文化入侵非常值得注意。每個民族都有自己的文化傳統，都有自己的主體文化意識，只有在發展民族文化的基礎上將異質文化中的優質文化溶入本土文化，文化現代化才能真正實現，用異質文化代替本土文化只會導致文化的衰落，民族的消亡。
雖然湯林森的《文化帝國主義》一書，給我們提供了許多全球化和現代化情況在世界各地的資訊，但對他的文化“同質化”趨勢的宿命，認為“全球化的效果，勢將削弱所有民族國家的文化向心力，即使在經濟上強勢的國家（先前時代的'帝國主義權勢核心），亦不能倖免於此”的結論，不能苟同，這一結論值得我們深思。欣慰的是文化品的閱讀者，大都受到自身文化傳統的制約和文化背景的影響，是主動有選擇的解讀，所以我相信每個解讀者都會有自己的認知，深刻而全面地思索湯林森書中的問題。
(http://www.smth.edu.cn/bbsanc.php?path=%2Fgroups%2Fliteral.faq%2FPhilosophy%2Fworld%2Fschools%2Fcriticaltheories%2FPostModernism%2FM.956979051.A)
文化帝國主義 (英)湯林森著 馮建三譯 上海人民出版社1999 pdf
Cultural Imperialism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Cultural imperialism, coined by analogy to military imperialism, refers to the practice of promoting the culture and language of one nation in another, particularly when the former is a large powerful nation and the latter a small poor one. This can take the form of active, formal policy or a general attitude.
Empires throughout history have been established using war and physical compulsion. In the long term populations have tended to be absorbed into the dominant culture, or acquire its attributes indirectly.
One of the first examples of cultural imperialism was extinction of the Etruscan culture and language caused by the Roman Empire.
The Greek culture built gyms, theatres and public baths in places that its adherents conquered (such as ancient Judea, where Greek cultural imperialism sparked a popular revolt), with the effect that the populations became immersed in that culture. The spread of the koine (common) Greek language was another large factor in this immersion.
A revealing instance of cultural imperialism is the Prayer Book rebellion of 1549, where the English state sought to suppress non-English languages with the English language Book of Common Prayer. In replacing Latin with English, and under the guise of suppressing Catholicism, English was effectively imposed as the language of the Church, one of the societal focal points of the time. At the time people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand English. The Cornish language is no longer a matter of life and death, but in 1549 it was. Many Cornish people protesting against the imposition of an English Prayer book were massacred by the King's army. Their leaders were executed and the people suffered numerous reprisals.
Throughout the 18th and 19th century the dominant English establishment attempted (unsuccessfully) to eliminate all non-English languages within the British Island group (such as the Welsh language, Irish language and Scottish Gaelic language) by outlawing them or otherwise marginalising their speakers. Many other languages had almost or totally been wiped out by this point including Cornish and Manx. The term was probably first applied to the British Empire which had many measures, such as encouraging the game of cricket and teaching English, to further establish its grasp on countries and territories the world over.
As exploration of the Americas increased, European nations including Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal all raced to claim territory in hopes of generating increased economic wealth for themselves. In these new colonies, the European conquerors imposed their language and culture.
During the late 18th, 19th and the early 20th centuries, the Swedish government continually repressed the Saami culture. Repression took numerous forms, such as banning the Saami language and by forceful removal of many cultural artifacts, such as the magic drums of the naajds (the Saami shamans). Most of the drums have not to date been returned. During the early 20th century even the Swedish-Finnish people of Tornedalen had their native Tornedal Finnish language banned from official use in schools and public records.
Until August 2002, the Turkish government banned the use of the Kurdish language in education and the media. This policy was abandoned in order to bolster the Turkish bid for membership in the European Union. On the other hand, Kurds have always taken their place in every sphere of Turkish life including the National Assembly.
China has, since the early 20th century, been actively repressing Tibetan culture and religion, as well as encouraging chinese immigration into Tibet.
Cultural imperialism in the twentieth century has primarily been connected with the United States and with the Soviet Union, and to a lesser extent with other countries that exert strong influence on neighboring nations. Most countries outside the US feel that the high degree of cultural export through business and popular culture--popular and academic books, films, music, and television--threatens their unique ways of life or moral values where such cultural exports are popular. Some countries, including France, have policies that actively oppose Americanisation.
Representatives of al-Qaida stated that their attacks on US interests were motivated in part by a reaction to perceived US cultural imperialism.
It should be noted that 'cultural imperialism' can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will. Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question.
The writer Edward Said, one of the founders of the field of post-colonial study, has written extensively on the subject of cultural imperialism, and his work is considered by many to form an important cornerstone in this area of study. His work highlights the inaccuracies of many assumptions about cultures and societies and is largely informed by Michel Foucault's concepts of discourse and power. The nation of Canada is also grappling with the ever-potent influence of the U.S. Aside from the fact that American businesses are purchasing Canadian industries and resources at alarming rates, the Canadian population is continuously bombarded by the American media. Canada`s response, albeit not a xenophobic one, has been to enact a law which requires Canadian radio stations to formulate a 35% Canadian content in their agendas. Canadians have typically embraced American culture, but have also successfully upheld their own "distinctiveness". See also: Cultural movement, colonialism, Imperialism, Ethnocentrism
"In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?"
Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory
By Livingston A. White / Florida State University
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